Walking to School: Connecting Past and Present Impacts Produced by the Pedestrian and Bicycle Information Center Published in ArcGIS StoryMap platform May 2024 ________________ [Header Image: A black and white photograph showing a Black family, specifically a father walking across the street in a marked crosswalk holding the hands of two smaller girls, on their way to school. A crosswalk guard stands in the middle of the street with her arms up to help them cross the street. This photograph documents the desegregation of public schools in Nashville, Tennessee and implementation of the Nashville Plan, a plan to desegregate one grade per year starting with the first grade. Caption: Harold Street walks his daughter Lajuanda (right) and Jacqueline Griffith (left) to Glenn Elementary School, Nashville, TN, September 1957. Source: Nashville Banner Archives, Special Collections Division, Nashville Public Library.] ________________ Table of Contents Introduction Legacy of Segregation on Community Health • School Segregation • Residential Segregation Youth Walking in Disinvested Communities City Example: Atlanta, GA • Visualizing the Present and Historical Context of Segregation • Mapping Present Day Social Factors A Snapshot of Atlanta’s Safe Routes to School Program Conclusion Additional Resources Image Credits Citations Suggested Citation Disclaimer ________________ Introduction Learning to walk is an often-celebrated milestone in the lives of young children. As they grow into older children and then teens, walking becomes a means of independent mobility. For some youth, walking is the only travel option, including the trip between home and school. Whether walking is a choice or not, safe, accessible, equitable, and convenient networks are a necessity for active travel. However, not all communities have safe, convenient networks as historical—and even current—transportation decision making is not always equitable and resource limitations slow the rate of change. These decisions influence whether people, including children and youth, feel safe and comfortable walking within their communities. They also determine if people can access the places and services that they want to reach by walking. These decisions impact the ability for people and their communities to experience the full benefits that walking offers, including health, less traffic congestion and air pollution, social connections, and independence. This StoryMap focuses on the legacy of segregation and its impact on how streets around our schools look today – including sidewalks, speed and other conditions that influence safe walking. Off-road facilities such as shared use paths and neighborhood connectors, while not captured here, are also important. We explore how segregation, present-day social factors, and roadway conditions look in one city in the United States—Atlanta, Georgia—and highlight one specific project aiming to improve active travel for students at a middle school. The StoryMap showcases how historical disinvestment impacts, can and should be considered as communities make decisions about where to invest funding and other resources to improve safety for walking. Safe Routes to School (SRTS) programs support walking and biking to school through programming and projects to improve safety and increase the use of these modes. Safe Routes to School program coordinators and partners in public health, advocacy, and local and State transportation agencies can all benefit from understanding how active travel has been impacted by past segregation policies and practices and to consider where and how to apply resources now. ________________ Legacy of Segregation on Community Health Thousands of Safe Routes to School programs exist across the United States (U.S.), and many operate within the context of schools and communities that experience the historical and intentional exclusion from equitable policies, practices, and resources. These disinvested schools and their broader communities are often impacted by the legacy of various forms of segregation. Segregation, practiced by law in the 19th and 20th centuries, required people of color to live in separate housing, attend separate schools, and use separate services, specifically dividing Black and White populations across the U.S. The practice of segregation was not equal and had lasting impacts on the socioeconomic mobility of individuals and households for generations. Segregation within public schools, which persisted even after it was ruled unconstitutional in Brown vs Board of Education in 1954, is a major driver of racial inequity within the U.S. and is interconnected with racial residential segregation, as it creates and maintains barriers to opportunities and resources for individual and community-level health [1]. Segregation can be measured by looking at the extent to which two or more groups vary across an area and how subsets of an area differ from the whole. For instance, this could be looking at characteristics of a neighborhood compared to the city in which the neighborhood sits. Segregation differs from solely measuring racial composition [2, 3]. Segregation is systemic and pervasive within all aspects of civil life such as school segregation, racial residential segregation, and discriminatory housing policies, like historical redlining, which all have long-term impacts on community health and wealth over generations. School Segregation School segregation is typically measured by the racial composition of schools compared to the surrounding neighborhood demographics where students live. This is often expressed in the similarities or dissimilarities of racial groups and can be measured at the school, city, county, or State level [4, 5]. [Image: African American boys and young men in class being taught by Singleton C. Anderson circa 1940-1959. From a set of photographs labeled "Singleton Anderson, Rocky Point," presumably related to the Rosenwald School at Rocky Point, NC (the Pender County Training School). Caption: African American boys and young men in class being taught by Singleton C. Anderson circa 1940-1959. From a set of photographs labeled "Singleton Anderson, Rocky Point," presumably related to the Rosenwald School at Rocky Point, NC (the Pender County Training School). Source: Copyright North Carolina Collection, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Library] The County Health Rankings and Roadmap program at the University of Wisconsin Population Health Institute seeks to increase community knowledge and action around health equity. The program provides communities with resources related to data, evidence, and guidance on key public health indicators tied to community health such as school segregation. The 2023 County Health Rankings provides a high-level view of the distribution of school segregation across the U.S. by State and county using information on public schools from the National Center for Education Statistics [5]. More specifically, this index shows how closely the racial groups within the student population match the racial groups of the surrounding community in which the school is located. This map provides a high-level view of the distribution of school segregation across the U.S. with the lightest shades showing States with less segregation and the darkest shades indicating greater segregation. [Map Image: Map shows the contiguous United States with State outlines as boundaries and three different categories to show the distribution of school segregation across the country as: above average, with greater segregation; average in segregation; and below average, with less segregation. Visually, it shows that approximately half of all States in the lower 48 are below average and have less segregation; approximately 12 States are average in segregation; and 12 States have above average, or greatest segregation. Refer to reference cited for more information [5].] County-level school segregation provides another high-level view for context within a State. Looking within the State of Georgia, with lightest shades showing less segregation and darkest shades showing greater segregation, this map reveals a high concentration of school segregation located in the southwest and northwest area of the State including counties within the Atlanta metropolitan area (located in the northwest region) [5]. [Map image: Map focuses on the State of Georgia, United States, with county outlines as boundaries and five different categories to show county-level school segregation as: above average, with greater segregation; average in segregation; below average, with less segregation; low, with least segregation; and missing data. Visually, it shows that there are four counties with missing data. Most counties are low in segregation. There is one county with average school segregation and two with above average school segregation. The highest concentration of school segregation is located in the southwest and northwest area of the State including counties within the Atlanta metropolitan area (located in the northwest region). Refer to reference cited for more information [5].] School segregation has negatively impacted opportunities by disproportionately underfunding schools and perpetuating academic and economic disparities within communities over generations [6, 7]. School segregation ties to inequities in academic opportunities as it impacts funding capacity and allocation of resources for students within schools [7]. Underfunded schools and communities can encounter more barriers to benefiting from Safe Routes to School projects and programs as well. For example, funding from the U.S. Department of Transportation that often supports Safe Routes to School programs requires applicants to provide a percentage, or cost share, of the proposed budget, thereby requiring access to capital that may not be available. Residential Segregation Racial residential segregation and historical redlining are other forms of segregation with lasting health impacts. Racial residential segregation is a fundamental cause of health disparities and inequities as a result of structural racism and, similar to other processes of segregation, is a major driver for racial differences in neighborhood conditions [8]. Residential segregation leads to large differences between communities in terms of the quality and availability of education, wealth, access to care, and the built environment [9, 11]. [Image: Illustration shows different types of buildings including a school, a home, a restaurant, and other administrative-type buildings separated by fractured ground to depict residential segregation that divides communities. Source: Highway Safety Research Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.] “Redlining” is a term that refers to a U.S. Federally sponsored policy and practice initiated in the 1930s by the Home Owners’ Loan Corporation (HOLC), a government-sponsored corporation that made loans to new homeowners by refinancing mortgages at low-interest rates using color-coded and letter-graded maps to group neighborhoods into perceived financial risk and lending categories [11, 12]. Although banned in 1968, historical redlining and other discriminatory policies continue to have persistent negative impacts and further perpetuate unequal transportation and residential environments across U.S. cities. [Image: Images showing historical maps from the Home Owners’ Loan Corportation. These maps depict the assigned categories and grades A-representing Best, B-Still Desirable, C-Definitively Declining, and D-Hazardous. Visually, the maps show that different parts of these cities were divided into different grades and separated from others. These maps represent Chicago, IL and Oakland, CA.] Historical redlining continues to impact current adverse health outcomes at the individual and community-level, including income and economic opportunities as well as traffic deaths [14, 15, 16]. Acknowledging and documenting the continual history of underinvestment and lack of community governance through practices like historical redlining, allows us to begin to provide historical context into the lasting inequities in transportation outcomes. This bar chart describes the distribution of pedestrian deaths by historical redlining grades across the U.S. Areas formerly graded D, which restricted community investment in the 1930s-1940s by describing the areas as high-risk for investments, have higher rates of present-day pedestrian fatalities than areas graded A, or those areas deemed best for credit and investments [16]. [Figure: Graph of description of pedestrian fatatlity rates by HOLC grades, A, B, C, and D, and Overall per the rate of pedestrian fatalities per 100,000 person-years. Grade D is highest: 2.6; Grade C: 1.9; Grade B: 1.6; Grade A is lowest: 1.1. Overall is 2.0. Refer to reference cited for more information [16].] Measures of school segregation and residential segregation have a compounding effect. Not all forms of segregation are a sole or perfect measure of the legacy of segregation, however these measures can provide a starting point for understanding the historical or present-day context that contribute to neighborhood inequities including transportation. School and residential segregation, along with other systemic racist processes, have cemented and facilitated unequal access to economic and academic opportunities and healthy built environments for children and families, and continue to have lasting consequences on community health. More specifically, these processes also intersect with the transportation environment and ultimately impact access to safe walking and biking conditions. ________________ Youth Walking in Disinvested Communities Access to safe, comfortable, accessible, equitable, and convenient places for children to walk is a critical component of thriving communities. Children, because of their size and physical and cognitive development, face unique risks when walking. While the last 30 years have seen an overall reduction in child pedestrian deaths, this improvement has not benefited everyone equally [17]. Non-Hispanic Black, Hispanic, and American Indian/Alaska Native children all have higher rates of child pedestrian deaths than White, Non-Hispanic children and Asian/Pacific Islander children [18]. The prevalence of walking and biking to school among school-aged children within underserved or low-income communities is higher than in other communities [19]. For instance, Hispanic children, non-Hispanic Black children, and children in low-income households walk and bike to school more frequently than their non-Hispanic white or higher-income counterparts [19]. Despite the clear need for good walking conditions, many underserved communities lack supportive infrastructure. Conditions known to present risks for pedestrians, such as high-speed roads and absent or reduced quality of pedestrian infrastructure, are found with greater frequency in disadvantaged communities [20, 21, 22]. Many of these safety risk factors were created or sustained due to historical processes like segregation, which is often not measured or mentioned. [Image: Six middle school students cross a street using a crosswalk during an educational pop-up demonstration project. Caption: On Walk & Roll to School Day 2022, Crawford Long Middle School students use a crosswalk during an educational pop-up demonstration designed to gain community feedback. Source: City of Atlanta.] ________________ City Highlight: Atlanta, Georgia Transportation agencies and SRTS programs need to consider the processes by which the legacies of different forms of segregation have resulted in differences in transportation safety across the communities that they serve. The inclusion of segregation metrics also adds historical context that better illustrates the decision-making processes of the past that call for remedy now and in the future. In this section, examining the metropolitan area of Atlanta, GA offers an example of how publicly available data can be used to assess and better understand historical, social, and built environment factors that impact walking and biking conditions for children and youth. Visualizing the Present and Historical Context of Segregation Historical Redlining The Mapping Inequality Project from the University of Richmond provides historical digitalized data of redlining practices across more than 100 cities including Atlanta, GA [13]. These maps provide spatial context to the practices of residential segregation in the 1930s. Using a present-day map of Atlanta, GA overlayed with 1930s HOLC boundaries provides a spatial tool to explore historical context. Areas previously categorized as green or blue show “A” or “B” grade ratings. These ratings were typically assigned to residential areas where the majority of the population was white and were prioritized for broad lending by mortgage companies. These areas are primarily located in the northern region of the city in contrast to areas shown in yellow or red represented as “C” or “D” grade ratings. These areas were denied mortgage lending resources and other community investments limiting generational opportunities as residents were predominately communities of color. [Map image: Map focuses on present-day Atlanta, GA area with 1930s HOLC boundaries as overlay. The HOLC boundaries are divided into grade categories A, B, C, and D. Areas with A and B grade ratings are located in the northern region of the city in contrast to the C and D areas which are more center east area and southwest areas of the present-day city boundary. Refer to reference cited for more information [13].] Present-Day Racial Residential Segregation Using U.S. Census data from the 2016-2020 5-year estimates from the American Community Survey (ACS), we can visualize measures of racial residential segregation within Atlanta, GA. In Atlanta, there is a clear dissimilarity of racial groups with high segregation of mostly White populations (shown in darker brown) in the northern area and high segregation of mostly Black/African American populations in the southern region (shown in darker green). These data show a similar spatial pattern to the 1930s Historical Redlining maps with differences in the north compared to the south. Data was obtained from the American Community Survey 2016-2020 (5-year) estimates at the census tract level within the Atlanta Metropolitan Area. [Map image: Map of Atlanta, GA metro area showing area divided into four racial residential segregation categories ranging from mostly White populations to mostly Black/African American populations. Visually, the map shows a very high contrast between mostly White populations in the northern areas and mostly Black/African American populations in the southern areas, almost as if separated by a line that runs from northwest to southeast in the city.] Mapping Present Day Social Factors Alongside the context of segregation, present-day social indicators offer a way to measure and assess the health and well-being of a community. Indicators such as community economic stability and healthcare access provide insights into current community-level conditions that create inequitable opportunities and barriers to health and can help guide SRTS planning and prioritization [23]. In the sequence of maps provided below, data from American Community Survey 2016-2020 were used to visualize present-day social indicators. Note: These datasets reference the 2020 American Community Survey (ACS) as conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau. Data was provided from the Atlanta Department of Transportation and apportioned to National Statistics Area (NSA) boundaries by the Atlanta Regional Commission via the Atlanta Regional Commission Open Data & Mapping Hub. For more information see About Data. Economic Stability Poverty measures the percentage of the population living below the poverty level determined by the U.S. Census. This map shows the distribution of the population living below the poverty level across the area using National Statistical Areas. Areas with higher levels of the population living below the poverty level are concentrated in the southern and southeast regions of Atlanta (shaded in dark and light green) in comparison to areas in the northern region which have lower concentrations of populations living below poverty. Note: Click on the circle in the left corner to view the map legend. [Map image: Map of Atlanta, GA metro area showing area divided into three categories of percent of population living below poverty levels in the ranges of: zero to 15 percent; 15 to 30 percent; and 30 to 62 percent. Visually, the map shows that the areas with higher levels of population living below the poverty level, in the 15 to 62 percent range, are concentrated in the southern and southeast regions of Atlanta in comparison to areas in the northern region which have lower concentrations of populations, below 15 percent, living below poverty.] Healthcare Access Healthcare access measures the percentage of the population with health insurance as determined by the US Census. Like the measures of economic stability, a north-south difference continues. This map shows that areas in the southern regions of Atlanta (shaded in dark green and light green) have higher concentrations of communities with no health insurance compared to the northern region. Note: Click on the circle in the left corner to see the map legend. [Map image: Map of Atlanta, GA metro area showing area divided into three categories of percent of population living without health insurance in the ranges of: zero to 6 percent; 6 to 14 percent; and 14 to 24 percent. Visually, the map shows that the areas with higher levels of population living without health insurance in the 6 to 24 percent range are concentrated in the southern and southeast regions of Atlanta in comparison to areas in the northern region where less people, 6 percent or lower, are without health insurance.] Combining Residential Segregation and Social Context Combining segregation (historical or present) and social context can reveal other patterns. Areas with high segregation and resulting disadvantages are often concentrated in similar spaces. In Atlanta, high segregation of mostly Black/African American populations is seen in the same areas with limited social resources (as measured by economic stability and access to health care). These similar geographic patterns between these two community factors provide insights into neighborhood barriers that need further consideration in transportation decision making. This map shows the spatial comparison of racial residential segregation (on the left) and percentage of the population living below poverty (on the right), showing similar north and south spatial patterns across the metropolitan region. To navigate this map, slide the circle arrows from left to right. Note: These maps are for observation of spatial patterns only and do not represent a statistical association. [Map image: Interactive map slider developed to compare two maps using a vertical slider. Both maps are of the Atlanta, GA metro area. The map on the left shows the spatial distribution of population living below poverty and map on the right shows racial residential segregation. The overlay of the two maps shows that areas of higher concentrations living below poverty levels and high racial residential segregation are mostly located in the same geographic areas.] Distribution of Schools and Communities of Concern When considering safe walking and biking access for students, there is a clear need to examine streets around the schools themselves and the neighborhood in which the school is located. Below we explore two different “lenses” for looking at roadway characteristics that impact walking conditions for students: 1) around Title I schools and 2) within Communities of Concern as identified by the Atlanta Department of Transportation (ATLDOT). Public Schools in Atlanta There are 70 public schools in the Atlanta metro area comprised of elementary schools, middle schools, and high schools. The locations of the 2020-2021 public schools were obtained from the National Center for Education Statistics Open Data Portal [24]. Click on the circle in the left hand corner to view the map legend. [Map image: Map highlighting Atlanta, GA metro area and surrounding area showing public school locations, including elementary, middle, and high schools, in the 2020-2021 time period by dots. Within the Atlanta metro highlighted area, there are 70 public schools as shown by dots.] Title I Schools The Title I school designation gives access to funds for schools with high percentages of students qualifying for free or reduced-price lunch services. As such, it serves as a proxy to identify schools with higher percentages of children from high poverty households [25]. In Atlanta, 56 of its 70 public schools are considered Title I schools, and the majority of these schools are located in the southern region.The locations of the 2020-2021 public schools were obtained from the National Center for Education Statistics Open Data Portal [24]. [Map image: Map highlighting Atlanta, GA metro area and surrounding area showing the locations of public schools that are considered Title One schools in the 2020-2021 time period by dots on the map. The public schools include elementary, middle, and high schools. Within the Atlanta metro highlighted area, there are 56 public schools that are considered Title One Schools and the majority of these schools are located in the southern region.] Neighborhood Level - Communities of Concern The City of Atlanta’s Vision Zero Action Plan calls for the elimination of all traffic fatalities and injuries, directing efforts to its Communities of Concern. The Atlanta Department of Transportation used specific neighborhood-level indicators (e.g., households without access to motor vehicles, percentages of school-age children, older adults, and persons with disabilities, as well as race, income, and health insurance coverage, among several other indicators) to identify Communities of Concern. A total of 12 communities, all located in the southern region of the metro area (shaded in dark green), were identified and prioritized for more specific transportation development and initiatives [26]. Schools, along with many other neighborhood assets, are present in these communities. Data was provided by the City of Atlanta Department of Transportation [Map image: Map highlighting Atlanta, GA metro area showing the 12 Communities of Concern by solid fill of the defined community borders. The majority of the Communities of Concern are located in the southern area of the city.] Built Environment Context - Walking Conditions Sidewalk quality and roadway functional classification offer two components of the transportation system to evaluate the transportation environments that may inhibit walking and biking. Sidewalks separate pedestrians from motor vehicles and their presence and quality can either deter or encourage students to walk and bike to school. Sidewalks have been estimated to result in an 88 percent reduction in pedestrian crashes. Roadways with high-speed vehicles increase the likelihood of a crash with a pedestrian and severe outcomes. Given that important measures of pedestrian safety are often not collected, many studies have used the presence or absence of sidewalks and the presence/absence of high-speed roads as indicators of heightened pedestrian risk [26]. Below we look at these two measures of walking conditions around Title I schools and within Communities of Concerns identified by ATL DOT. These serve as examples of the kinds of data that could be used by other cities to get a more nuanced picture of what groups are being impacted by poor roadway conditions. Title I Schools Using sidewalk conditions in a one-quarter mile buffer radius around Title I schools and non-Title I schools reveals that Title I schools have higher frequency of poor-quality sidewalks and higher speed roads compared to non-Title I schools. Atlanta Department of Transportation provided city-owned data on sidewalk quality collected in 2019. Sidewalk conditions were described using seven categories (no/poor sidewalks, very poor, marginal, fair, good, very good, and excellent). These data were grouped into poor (no sidewalks/very poor/poor), fair (marginal/fair), and good (good/very good/excellent) conditions. Functional classification, provided by Georgia Department of Transportation, was used to identify potential high-speed roads and were grouped into three categories (Local, Interstate/Highway, Minor/Major Collectors/Minor Arterial). Roads are categorized according to FHWA’s recommendations of functional classification [28]. Note: Sidewalk inventory data reflects sidewalk quality from May to July 2019. This data shows a snapshot in time and may not represent the current environments and is to be used for high level planning. [Figures: Bar chart comparing sidewalk conditions between Title One and non-Title One school areas. The bar chart shows the frequency of sidewalk conditions as described by three different categories: poor, fair and good, between areas around non-Title One Schools and areas around Title One schools. There is a higher frequency of poor quality sidewalks in areas around Title One schools, and a higher frequency of good quality sidewalks in areas around non-Title One schools. Visually, the bar chart shows that there is about the same frequency of fair quality sidewalks in both areas. Bar chart comparing different roadway environments between Title One and non-Title One school areas. The bar chart shows the frequency of three different functional classifications of different roadway types, including interstate/highway, local, and collector/arterial roadway types compared between areas around non-Title One Schools and areas around Title One schools. There are more interstate/highway roadway types for areas around Title One schools, and more collector/arterial roadway types around non-Title One schools. Visually, the bar chart shows that there is about the same amount of local roads in both areas.] Communities of Concern We used the same data for sidewalk conditions and functional classification to apply to Atlanta’s Communities of Concern as possible impacts to these communities’ routes to school. The Communities of Concern show similar patterns as the Title I schools, with higher concentration of poor sidewalk quality and higher high-speed roadways compared to roadways in non-Communities of Concern. As shown with the previous bar charts, these data were grouped into poor (no sidewalks/very poor/poor), fair (marginal/fair), and good (good/very good/excellent) conditions. Functional classification was used to identify potential high-speed roads and were grouped into three categories (Local, Interstate/Highway, Minor/Major Collectors/Minor Arterial). [Figures: Bar chart comparing sidewalk conditions between Communities of Concern and non-Communities of Concern. The bar chart shows the frequency of sidewalk conditions as described by three different categories: poor, fair and good, between non-Community of Concern and Community of Concern areas. There is a higher frequency of poor quality sidewalks in Concern and Community of Concern areas, and a higher frequency of good quality sidewalks in a non-Community of Concern areas. Visually, the bar chart shows that there is a slightly higher frequency of fair quality sidewalks in non-Community of Concern areas. Bar chart comparing different roadway environments between Communities of Concern and non-Communities of Concern. The bar chart shows the frequency of three different functional classifications of different roadway types, including interstate/highway, local, and collector/arterial roadway types compared between areas around non-Community of Concern and Community of Concern area. There are more interstate/highway roadway types for Community of Concern areas, and more collector/arterial roadway types around non-Community of Concern areas. Visually, the bar chart shows that there is about the same amount of local roads in both areas.] A dive into one of the twelve Communities of Concern offers a more fine-grained view of the distribution of sidewalk conditions and roadway designs. [Map image: Map highlighting Atlanta, GA metro area showing the 12 Communities of Concern by solid fill of the defined community borders. The majority of the Communities of Concern are located in the southern area of the city. This map is a repeat from a previous map, but is being used a starting point for a series of maps that will follow to focus in on one specific community.] This community is located in an area with a high degree of racial residential segregation with mostly Black/African American residents and limited social resources (as measured by economic stability and access to health care). Sidewalk quality is highly limited in this area with high-speed roadways bordering the neighborhood, which greatly impacts walking conditions. [Map image: Map as part of a series highlighting specific Community of Concern within Atlanta, GA metro area. The map shows the Community of Concern by boundary outline within the larger area, including roads and topographic features. This map, as part of a series, shows the specific area of focus.] This map shows the different sidewalk conditions. Different shaded route overlays on the map indicate sidewalk quality conditions: red colored routes indicate poor or no sidewalk present conditions; green represents good conditions; blue indicates great or excellent conditions. [Map image: Map as part of a series highlighting specific Community of Concern within Atlanta, GA metro area. The map shows the same Community of Concern by boundary outline within the larger area, as shown previously, including roads and topographic features. The new layer introduced on this map is to show sidewalk conditions within the Community, as represented by three categories: poor or no sidewalks present, fair, and good. These three different sidewalk condition qualities are represented by three different colors. Visually, the map shows that there seem to be poorer or no sidewalk quality conditions than the other two fair or good conditions.] This map shows the red shaded routes, which indicate poor or no sidewalk present conditions. [Map image: Map as part of a series highlighting specific Community of Concern within Atlanta, GA metro area. The map shows the same Community of Concern by boundary outline within the larger area, as shown previously, including roads and topographic features. The additional layer on this map shows poor or no sidewalk conditions within the Community, as defined by lines in a contrasting color. Visually, the map shows that this specific sidewalk condition spans across the Community, in long connected lines and segments.] This map represents green shaded routes, which represent good conditions. [Map image: Map as part of a series highlighting specific Community of Concern within Atlanta, GA metro area. The map shows the same Community of Concern by boundary outline within the larger area, as shown previously, including roads and topographic features. The additional layer on this map shows good sidewalk conditions within the Community, as defined by lines in a contrasting color. Visually, the map shows that sidewalks designated with good condition quality are located in isolated areas across the Community, without long connected lines or segments.] Lastly, this map shows blue shaded routes, indicating great or excellent conditions. [Map image: Map as part of a series highlighting specific Community of Concern within Atlanta, GA metro area. The map shows the same Community of Concern by boundary outline within the larger area, as shown previously, including roads and topographic features. The additional layer on this map shows excellent sidewalk conditions within the Community, as defined by lines in a contrasting color. Visually, the map shows that sidewalks designated with excellent condition quality do have connected lines or segments, but there are no major connectors that span across the entire Community.] In the next section, we document a project by Atlanta’s SRTS program used to address walking and biking conditions for Crawford Long Middle School, a school within this Community of Concern. ________________ A Snapshot from Atlanta’s SRTS Program Atlanta’s SRTS program, part of ATLDOT, is taking several steps to support safer walking and biking to school in its Communities of Concern. One specific example is the implementation of a quick-build project to create more space for active travel and to slow motorist speeds. Crawford Long Middle School, a Title I school located off Empire Boulevard SW in the Glenrose Heights neighborhood, enrolls 670 students with a predominately Black and Hispanic population. [Map image: A google map screen capture showing the location of the Crawford Long Middle School in Atlanta, GA, as marked by an icon of a graduation cap. Map caption: Crawford Long Middle School in Atlanta, GA.] In the 2022 - 2023 school year, 36 percent of the student population (or 244 students) lived within the school district’s designated walk zone, which is defined as the area within a mile and a half or less from the school. The most recent data revealed that eight percent of the student population were walking to school daily. The City’s interest in implementing infrastructure improvements to calm traffic and provide more protected space for walking and biking on Empire Boulevard SW, a school-adjacent wide, two-lane road, was spurred by community feedback, the City’s assessment of roadway conditions, and a recent crash in which a motorist struck a student near the school. The City of Atlanta took a deliberate approach to community engagement. They used the following actions: • Hosting planning meetings with the school and the local district council member • Conducting public engagement outreach efforts to residents within the neighborhood, with a particular focus on those living along the road that would be heavily impacted by the project. • Collecting stakeholder input and feedback through three consecutive public engagement community meetings and outreach to the local neighborhood planning group • Direct-mailing residents living within a quarter mile radius of the project to provide more information. • Using social media channels to send notifications and distribute advisory traffic notifications. • Going door-to-door to homes that would be impacted by parking changes • Organizing a pop-up demonstration of the walk/bike lane using traffic safety cones during the school’s Walk & Roll to School Day event to allow students and community members to experience the walk/bike lane design prior to its implementation and offer feedback to City transportation planning staff. [Image: A middle school student walks away from the viewer on the side of the road, facing oncoming vehicle traffic, between a landscaped curb and a line of orange cones that offers a temporary barrier between the walking area and the vehicle traffic lane. Caption: Crawford Long Middle School students use a pop-up installed on Walk & Roll to School Day 2022 and designed to get community feedback on a pilot quick-build walk/bike lane. Source: The City of Atlanta.] “The Department of Transportation saw that Crawford Long Middle School and our community had a need,” said Ms. Kathy Mayfield, School Business Manager. “They successfully invited all stakeholders to be part of the decision-making process that would make the community safer...This initiative will lead to more students walking and bike riding to school." Following the pop-up demonstration event, the City adopted legislation to implement a longer-term quick-build walk/bike lane and began construction three months later. [Image: A google map screen capture showing the location of the quick-build walk/bike lane. Caption: A map of the quick-build walk/bike lane, which runs from the intersection of Empire Boulevard SW and Oak Drive SW to the intersection of Empire Boulevard SW and Ward Drive SW. Source: The City of Atlanta.] The City used thermoplastic traffic striping and vertical barriers with reflective bands, including flex posts and wheel stops, to construct the walk/bike lane and traffic calming measures. Additionally, the City added pedestrian walk symbols and bike sharrows, (road markings used to indicate road sharing with bicyclists). [Images: Two images show the street view after quick-build improvements were installed, showing flexible posts and bars and paint markings at the center of the roadway and at the side of motor vehicle lane. Caption: Empire Boulevard SW after quick-build improvements were implemented. Source: The City of Atlanta.] Following the implementation of the project, the Atlanta SRTS program and school administrators provided community information and encouragement on the benefits of walking and biking to school and the value of the walk/bike lane to students. [Image: Four middle school students walking to school in a new walk/bike lane. Caption: Crawford Long Middle School students travel to school using the new walk/bike lane on Empire Boulevard SW. Source: The City of Atlanta.] The Atlanta SRTS program held a ribbon-cutting ceremony to celebrate the installation of the walk/bike lane as part of the school’s Bike & Roll to School Day event. The ceremony, attended by Atlanta’s Mayor, a local Councilmember, Department of Transportation Commissioner, community partners, school administrators, and students, offered a chance for local community members and leaders to experience and provide feedback on the changes made. [Image: Atlanta officials celebrating at the ribbon cutting event for the quick-build walk/bike lane with middle school students at a school. Caption: City of Atlanta officials including Atlanta Mayor Andre Dickens, District 12 Council Member Antonio Lewis, Department of Transportation Commissioner Solomon Caviness IV and members of the Crawford Long Middle School community gather at a ribbon cutting to launch a quick-build walk/bike lane on Empire Boulevard SW during Bike & Roll to School Day 2023.. Source: The City of Atlanta.] With a plan to collect more traffic data and input from the community, the City has already received positive feedback from students and school administrators about the improvements. Further, the local council member legislated City funding to deploy more SRTS projects within the district and other council members have requested quick-build projects in their districts as well. “Pilot programs such as this help spark change and address the needs of our most vulnerable road users in the city, including our youth,” said Marsha Anderson-Bomar, Interim Commissioner for the ATLDOT. “Designing for children is designing cities that work better for everyone.” For more information, see the complete case study from which this snapshot was developed, "Atlanta Uses Quick-Build Projects to Engage Community and Improve Road Safety for Young Pedestrians and Bicyclists" (https://www.pedbikeinfo.org/resources/resources_details.cfm?id=5601). ________________ Conclusion Safe Routes to School and Vision Zero programs and other road safety initiatives consider equity when prioritizing projects and other resources. This StoryMap highlights the importance of looking at the historical context for infrastructure deficits seen today, illustrating the importance of examining the legacy of segregation in communities as another important indicator for equity-informed prioritization. At the same time, this StoryMap suggests data sources cities can use to look more deeply at their own patterns, both based on the legacy of segregation and current walking conditions. Examining patterns in Atlanta’s metro region revealed that Title I schools and Communities of Concern have more interstates nearby and poorer sidewalk quality than those areas without Title I schools nor Communities of Concern distinction. These lenses for further exploration serve as data sources that can be investigated for other communities to prioritize areas and types of projects. Transportation agencies and SRTS programs should include processes by which the legacy of segregation or other forms of segregation relate to differences in transportation safety and include these impacts when prioritizing projects. Implementing projects in a more just and equitable way requires engaging community partners to understand their preferences. A snapshot from Atlanta’s SRTS program quick-build project demonstrates how that engagement can look. Ultimately, the aim behind this StoryMap is to serve as a call to action to dig deeper into our past, understand how it has influenced the present, and take action to address past injustices that continue to limit opportunities and harm communities today. ________________ Additional Resources Redlining including additional maps: Mapping Inequality Project (https://dsl.richmond.edu/panorama/redlining/) at the University of Richmond. Creating equitable approaches to traffic safety: Prioritizing Health Equity in Vision Zero Planning(https://visionzeronetwork.org/healthequity/) from the Vision Zero Network. Divided by Design (https://smartgrowthamerica.org/program/divided-by-design/) by Smart Growth America. The Pedestrian and Bicycle Information Center offers a text file (https://www.pedbikeinfo.org/resources/resources_details.cfm?id=5609) of this StoryMap content for ADA/WCAG compliance and accessibility. ________________ About the Data Data on Atlanta HOLC redlining map was obtained from Mapping Inequality Project (https://dsl.richmond.edu/panorama/redlining/) at the University of Richmond. Data for racial residential segregation was created using American Community Survey 2016-2020 (5-year) estimates obtained from the U.S. Census. Data for school segregation was created using the Education measure for school segregation from the 2023 County Health Rankings Program at the University of Wisconsin Population Institute. Data on public school location and Title I schools was obtained from the EDGE Open Data Portal created by the National Center for Education Statistics. For further information see https://data-nces.opendata.arcgis.com/. Data on roadway features were provided by Atlanta Department of Transportation and collection was contracted by the City of Atlanta in 2019 and fulfilled by IMS Infrastructure Management Services and Arcadis, Inc. using LiDAR technology. Data on social environments (economic stability and healthcare access) and Community of Concerns were provided by the ATL DOT and apportioned to the City’s NSA boundaries by the Atlanta Regional Commission via the ARC Open Data & Mapping Hub. These datasets reference the 2020 American Community Survey (ACS), as conducted by the US Census Bureau. ________________ Image Credits Cover Image: Image was obtained from the Nashville Banner Archives, Special Collection Division at the Nashville Public Library. Image contains Harold Street walks his daughter Lajuanda (right) and Jacqueline Griffith (left) to Glenn Elementary School, Nashville, TN, September 1957 School Segregation: Image was provided by Hugh Morton Photographs and Films, Wilson Special Collections Library, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. This image depicts African American boys and young men in class being taught by Singleton C. Anderson circa 1940-1959. From a set of photographs labeled "Singleton Anderson, Rocky Point," presumably related to the Rosenwald School at Rocky Point, NC (the Pender County Training School). ________________ Citations [1] History.com. (2023). Segregation In the United States. https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/segregation-united-states [2] Yang, T. C., Park, K., & Matthews, S. A. (2020). Racial/ethnic segregation and health disparities: Future directions and opportunities. Sociology compass, 14(6), e12794. [3] Massey, D. S., & Denton, N. A. (1988). The dimensions of residential segregation. Social forces, 679(2), 281-315. [4] Reardon, S. F., & Owens, A. (2014). 60 years after Brown: Trends and consequences of school segregation. Annual Review of Sociology, 40, 199-218. [5] County Health Rankings. (2023). School Segregation. https://www.countyhealthrankings.org/explore-health-rankings/county-health-rankings-model/health-factors/social-economic-factors/education/school-segregation. [6] Governments Accountability Office (GAO). (2022). K-12 Education: Student Population Has Significantly Diversified, but Many Schools Remain Divided Along Racial, Ethnic, and Economic Lines. https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-22-104737 [7] Urban Institute. (2022). Why School Segregation Matters. https://housingmatters.urban.org/articles/why-school-segregation-matters [8] Williams, D. R., & Collins, C. (2016). Racial residential segregation: a fundamental cause of racial disparities in health. Public health reports. [9] Landrine, H., & Corral, I. (2009). Separate and Unequal: Residential Segregation and Black Health Disparities Ethnicity & Disease, 19(2), 179-184. [10] Bailey, Z. D., Krieger, N., Agénor, M., Graves, J., Linos, N., & Bassett, M. T. (2017). Structural racism and health inequities in the USA: evidence and interventions. The lancet, 389(10077), 1453-1463. [11] Hillier, A. E. (2003). Who received loans? Home Owners’ Loan Corporation lending and discrimination in Philadelphia in the 1930s. Journal of Planning history, 2(1), 3-24. [12] Robertson, C., Parker, E., & Tach, L. (2023). Historical redlining and contemporary federal place-based policy: a case of compensatory or compounding neighborhood inequality?. Housing Policy Debate, 33(2), 429-452 [13] Nelson, R., Winling, L., Marciano, R., Connolly, N., et al. Mapping inequality. American Panorama, ed. Accessed January 11, 2022. https://dsl.richmond.edu/panorama/redlining/#loc=4/36.71/-97.194 [14] Lee, E. K., Donley, G., Ciesielski, T. H., Yamoah, O., Roche, A., Martinez, R., & Freedman, D. A. (2022). Health outcomes in redlined versus non-redlined neighborhoods: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Social science & medicine, 294, 114696. [15] Swope, C. B., Hernández, D., & Cushing, L. J. (2022). The relationship of historical redlining with present-day neighborhood environmental and health outcomes: a scoping review and conceptual model. Journal of Urban Health, 99(6), 959-983. [16] Taylor, N. L., Porter, J. M., Bryan, S., Harmon, K. J., & Sandt, L. S. (2023). Structural racism and pedestrian safety: measuring the association between historical redlining and contemporary pedestrian fatalities across the United States, 2010‒2019. American journal of public health, 113(4), 420-428. [17] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. (n.d.). FARS Custom data set analysis, 2014-2018. Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS). Retrieved October 27, 2022, from https://www.nhtsa.gov/research-data/fatality-analysis-reporting-system-fars and U.S. Census Bureau. (n.d.). Population. U.S. Department of Commerce. Retrieved October 28, 2022, from https://www.census.gov/topics/population.html [18] Kendi, S., & Johnston, B. D. (2023). Epidemiology and prevention of child pedestrian injury. Pediatrics, 152(1), e2023062508. [19] McDonald, N. C. (2008). Critical factors for active transportation to school among low-income and minority students: evidence from the 2001 National Household Travel Survey. American journal of preventive medicine, 34(4), 341-344. [20] Lowe, K. (2016). Environmental justice and pedestrianism: Sidewalk continuity, race, and poverty in New Orleans, Louisiana. Transportation Research Record, 2598:119-123. doi:10.3141/2598-14 [21] Rajaee, M., Echeverri, B., Zuchowicz, Z., Wiltfang, K., & Lucarelli, J. F. (2021). Socioeconomic and racial disparities of sidewalk quality in a traditional rust belt city. SSM - Population Health, 16. doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2021.100975 [22] Sanders, R. L., Schneider, R. J. (2022). An exploration of pedestrian fatalities by race in the United States. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment,107:103298. doi:10.1016/J.TRD.2022.103298 [23] Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2023). Social Determinants of Health. https://www.cdc.gov/publichealthgateway/sdoh/index.html [24] National Center for Education Statistics. (2023). Public Schools Characteristics 2020-2021 retrieved on August 21, 2023 from https://data-nces.opendata.arcgis.com/datasets/nces::public-school-characteristics-2020-21/about [25] National Center for Education Statistics. (2023). Public School Students Eligible for Free or Reduced-Price Lunch. Retrieved on Nov 3, 2023 from https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=898 [26] City of Atlanta. (2022). Vision Zero Atlanta Annual Report & Interim Action Plan. Retrieved from: https://www.atlantaga.gov/home/showdocument?id=54301&t=637806831905998573 [27] Federal Highway Administration. (2018). Toolbox of Pedestrian Countermeasures and Their Potential Effectiveness. Retrieved from:https://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/ped_bike/tools_solve/fhwasa18041/fhwasa18041.pdf [28] Federal Highway Administration (2023). Highway Functional Classification Concepts, Criteria and Procedures. 2023 Edition. https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/planning/processes/statewide/related/hwy-functional-classification-2023.pdf ________________ Suggested Citation Taylor, N., Pullen-Seufert, N., Sandt, L., & Blank, K. (2024). Walking to School: Connecting Past and Present Impacts. Pedestrian and Bicycle Information Center. https://www.pedbikeinfo.org/resources/resources_details.cfm?id=5608 ________________ Acknowledgements The authors appreciate the generous data sharing and review by Atlanta Department of Transportation staff Emily Aust, Jordan Dowdy, Nichole Hollis, Subodha Khanal, and Betty Smoot-Madison and review by Federal Highway Administration staff Christopher Douwes and Bernadette Dupont. ________________ Disclaimer This material is based upon work supported by the Federal Highway Administration under Cooperative Agreement No. 693JJ32250017. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the Author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the view of the Federal Highway Administration. The U.S. Government does not endorse products or manufacturers. Trademarks or manufacturers’ names appear in this report only because they are considered essential to the objective of the document. Since its inception in 1999, the Pedestrian and Bicycle Information Center’s mission has been to improve the quality of life in communities through the increase of safe walking and bicycling as a viable means of transportation and physical activity. The Pedestrian and Bicycle Information Center is maintained by the University of North Carolina Highway Safety Research Center with funding from the U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration. NON-BINDING CONTENTS: Except for the statutes and regulations cited, the contents of this document do not have the force and effect of law and are not meant to bind the public in any way. This document is intended only to provide information and clarity to the public regarding existing requirements under the law or agency policies.